Commercial and Residential Fires: Theater warfare and close quarters Combat

When engaged in combat, the United States Military uses a decision-making framework known as METT-TC—Mission, Enemy, Terrain, Troops, Time, and Civilians. Within our department, some of these components are defined well in advance of the incident. Although there are always variables that necessitate adaptation, we primarily operate with several known parameters within the METT-TC concept before the incident occurs.

Former United States Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld quantifies this decision-making philosophy into an example of knowns and unknowns. We will refer to this, for the sake of discussion, as the Rumsfeld matrix. We have a higher probability of being both aware and understanding of residential fire environments due to the similarities in structures, familiarity with the territory, and previous experiences with incidents. Due to the size, complexity, and differences of commercial fires, we have a higher likelihood of encountering unknowns.

Knowns

Mission– In the most basic terms, our mission is to protect lives and property. We all know our incident priorities that clearly define the framework for our operational reasons.

-Protect and remove endangered occupants and treat the injured.

-Provide for life safety and stabilize the incident.

-Conserve property

-Provide for the safety, accountability, and welfare of personnel throughout the duration of the incident.

This never changes—extrications, fires, technical rescue, hazmat, EMS, and all other incidents for which we deploy our personnel. Our mission remains the same; rather, the strategy, tactics, tasks, and resources we take to achieve these goals vary from incident to incident.

Troops (Personnel, Apparatus, and Capabilities) – We know our response packages for incidents before a three-beep dispatch. Although they may be altered on which resource due to units being out of service or closer to an incident, outside of special parameters, We may have slight variations in our personnel. Still, we maintain a minimum known number of personnel deployed to incidents, allowing us to forecast the total manpower of each unit and the overall incident.

Time:  We cannot forecast how much time we have to prepare for the next structure fire. We recognize that one may occur within our twenty-four-hour shift, and we maintain operational combat readiness. However, once the fire department is called upon to respond, we know the fire is happening now. When the dispatch occurs, we know how to minimize the time from unit notification to arrival. Rapid dressing to get out of the station quickly, knowing territories to predict the fastest routes, and upgrading and balancing alarms based on information to decrease the time for resources to arrive.

We also see the impact of the time of day on the incident. Residential structure fires have a higher probability of civilian rescues at 2 AM compared to 2 PM. Inversely, commercial buildings (excluding hotels and apartments) have an extremely low likelihood of having civilians at 2 AM.

Unknowns

Enemy: The only thing we have is our enemy itself– a fire. This is our first unknown that we will observe upon arrival. If we were to attempt to forecast the extent of our enemy before arrival based on outside information, we would believe it is always fully involved, and we should step it up (Thanks, PD!). We utilize the byproduct of our enemy, the smoke, to predict what the fire has already decimated and where it intends to travel. We must proficiently read smoke to B.A.G. a fire (where has the fire Been, where is it At, where is it Going). We accomplish this by analyzing four factors when reading smoke:

Volume: The amount of smoke is analyzed relative to the building to indicate how much fuel is off-gassing. A large volume of smoke from a small space suggests a well-established fire, while a small volume from a large building should raise greater concern. The amount of smoke required to fill a large building to the point that it is visible from the exterior should indicate that a larger fuel package is present than a standard residential fire. A large volume from a large building should be an indicator of the enemy’s severity.

Velocity is the speed at which smoke exits an opening, indicating the amount of heat and pressure within the structure. The faster the smoke is moving, the more heat is present to create that pressure. The more turbulent the smoke leaving an opening, the closer it is to the energy creator (fire).

Density refers to the thickness of the smoke, which reveals the concentration of unburned fuel suspended within it. The denser the smoke, the more flammable fuel it contains, representing a higher potential for a hostile fire event. Think of dense smoke not as exhaust, but as fuel that is ready to ignite.

Color provides clues about what is burning and the stage of combustion. Lighter-colored smoke often indicates materials in the early stages of heating, while thick, black smoke points to petroleum-based products and incomplete combustion. Black smoke should be thought of as “black fire”, as it has all the fuel and all the heat, but is oxygen-deficient until it finds an opening to allow it to ignite. Dirty brown smoke is a significant danger sign, as it often indicates that the structural components of the building are burning.

Terrain

Terrain is a dichotomy as buildings will give us knowns, unknowns, and unknown unknowns. We have a generally high likelihood of knowing the layouts of residential buildings. There are always anomalies, as not all homeowners follow code, and not all houses are cookie-cutter. But we have indicators such as windows, doors, layouts, and general building practices that provide a mostly accurate predictive model. The maneuverability of our handlines and the size of the residential structures allow for quicker and easier adaptability as compared to commercial occupancies.

Commercial structures can vary in ways that are hard to comprehend—roof to roof, wall to wall, layout to layout. We must consider a much larger pool of variables and sub-variables that are not limited to size, compartmentation, structural members, building materials, arrangement, occupancy, additions, egress concerns, code violations, fire loads, attics, voids, etc.

The commercial structure fire is a serious enemy that requires resources to reach superiority.  It is time we act in such a manner that does not create a fair fight, but achieves a dominating campaign.

The Residential Fire: The Art of Close Quarters Combat (CQC)

The military defines close-quarters combat as direct confrontations in confined spaces, requiring the rapid and precise execution of tactics to neutralize threats. Success depends on speed, situational awareness, and controlled aggression, achieved through tactical speed and decisive action. A fire within the confines of a home or apartment is intimate, three-dimensional warfare hindered by visibility, movement restriction, and a deteriorating environment.

When making a push to extinguish a residential fire, personnel utilize the concept of violence of action – the use of speed, strength, surprise, and forward momentum to achieve total dominance. The engine company utilizes speed and maneuverability through the bread and butter 1 ¾ inch handline. A 2 ½ inch handline will gain a vast superiority over BTUs, but the speed to reach the seat of the fire through the interior will be significantly hindered. The 1 ¾ handline allows personnel to bring water that can overwhelm the fire at a speed that will enable us to achieve the engine company benchmarks of coating, holding, and sealing. The goal is always to move forward, avoiding being stuck in the “fatal funnel” of hallways and doorways. If the feedback from the environment does not allow forward progress, we have lost the momentum within the incident and need to reevaluate our actions.

The Commercial Fire: Open Battlefield Warfare

When the call is for a fire in a big-box store, warehouse, or industrial facility, the CQC mindset must be replaced by the calculated logic necessary for responding to strategic, large-scale incidents. We aim to achieve overwhelming fire superiority from safer distances, preventing scenarios where the enemy or the building overruns our firefighters. Our operational tempo is reduced, and a broader viewpoint analysis is engaged. How we achieve the mission is an entirely different philosophy.

Reconnaissance and Logistics: Our battlefield reconnaissance is the 360-degree size-up, a critical survey of the building construction, fire volume and location, and avenues of approach. We must identify the nearest entrance point to the seat of the fire, and create areas where streams can be applied from safe locations to mitigate harm to personnel. Initial ICs, truck companies, and battalion officers should also analyze secondary water sources to secure the necessary volumes and utilize division commanders to expand their eyes on the battlefield. We want to create an overwhelming force for both the present environment and the war of attrition.

“Artillery is the King of Battle”: This military axiom is the guiding principle of the commercial fireground. If the handline is a rifle, larger handlines and master stream are the artillery. Its purpose is strategic. Deployed from a safe distance, these powerful streams—2 ½-inch hose lines, rapid attack monitors (RAMs), and maneuverable master streams (aerials)—are used to shape the battlefield. They cool the immense thermal column, protecting exposures and preventing the fire from advancing. They are designed to accomplish the heavy work from a position of relative safety. The IC uses this “artillery” to suppress the enemy, disrupt their advance, and set the terms of the engagement before ever considering committing ground troops.

When using our aerials, they are much more than vertical standpipes that flow master streams from elevated positions. When an apparatus is positioned correctly, it can provide a large GPM monitor on a platform that can sweep into the attic space, extinguish burning materials, and maintain a safe distance due to the stream’s reach. The aerial is the ultimate threat neutralizer, and should be given the logistical support in independent water supplies to maximize potential.

Conclusion

The modern fire service demands professionals who are intellectually and tactically bilingual. We must be able to speak the language of close-quarters combat—of speed, instinct, and initiative—in the hallways of a burning home. Yet, we must also be fluent in the language of large-scale warfare—of logistics, strategy, and overwhelming force—when confronted with a commercial occupancy.

To apply CQC tactics to a commercial setting—to send a small crew with a single handline deep into a warehouse or large commercial occupancy—is to unnecessarily sacrifice your personnel to the whims of the incident. It is a failure to understand the nature of the war you are fighting.